## The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cork: Being the story of the origin of cork, the processes employed in its manufacture & its various uses in the world to-day

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Cork: Being the story of the origin of cork, the processes employed in its manufacture & its various uses in the world to-day

Author: Armstrong Cork Company

Release date: January 30, 2023 [eBook #69909]
Most recently updated: October 19, 2024

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Armstrong Cork Company, 1909

Credits: Carla Foust and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORK: BEING THE STORY OF THE ORIGIN OF CORK, THE PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN ITS MANUFACTURE & ITS VARIOUS USES IN THE WORLD TO-DAY ***

## Transcriber’s note

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

In this version, the illustrations are placed differently on the page than in the original. This was done to keep them on the same page as the original.

Copyright, 1909
by
Armstrong Cork Company
PITTSBURGH
U. S. A.

# Cork
Being the Story of
the origin of Cork,
the processes
employed in its
manufacture &
its varied uses in
the world to-day

1909
Armstrong Cork Company
of
Pittsburgh
U.S.A.

A Monarch of the Cork Forest

Few things in general use in the great world to-day have the hall-mark of approval of two thousand years set upon them. New materials, new processes, new commodities have followed the train of advancing civilization and the ensuing multiplication and alteration of man’s economic needs. Even where the demand for a certain material to fulfill a particular function has continued through the centuries, widening knowledge of natural resources coupled with modern invention has usually found some substitute cheaper, more efficient, and better adapted for the purpose in question. Not so with cork. Recognized by the ancients as peculiarly suited for certain uses, time has vindicated their verdict; nothing has yet been discovered to supplant it in its wide sphere of usefulness.

Theophrastus, Greek philosopher and writer on botany, who flourished in the fourth century before Christ, was evidently familiar with the material, for he mentions the cork tree as being a native of the Pyrenees. For decades before the time of Horace cork was used for stoppers for wine vessels. In fact, the poet tells one of his friends, about 25 B. C., that on the occasion of a coming anniversary banquet he expects to “remove the cork sealed with pitch” from a jar of the rare vintage of forty-six years previous, the first but not the last proceeding of this character of which history makes record.

[Pg 6]

Gnarled Trunk of an Old Cork Oak

It remained for the elder Pliny, however, in his wonderful work on natural history, written in the first century of the Christian era, to make the most remarkable reference to cork to be found in ancient literature: “The cork oak is but a very small tree and its acorns of the very[Pg 7] worst quality * * *; the bark is its only useful product, being remarkably thick, and if removed will grow again * * *.

Cork Strippers’ Camp

This substance is employed more particularly attached as a buoy to the ropes of ships’ anchors and the drag-nets of fishermen; it is used also for the[Pg 8] bungs of casks and as a material for the winter shoes of women.” Cork jackets—life-preservers—are mentioned by Plutarch. Thus five of the principal functions which cork fills in the world to-day were recognized two thousand years ago. In the fifteenth century glass bottles were introduced, which gave such great impetus to its general use that the real beginning of the cork industry may properly be said to date from that period. Some conception of its importance to-day may be gathered from the fact that the importations of the United States of crude and manufactured cork now aggregate almost $5,000,000 in value annually.

Stripping the Trees

The word cork is derived from the Latin cortex, meaning bark, and the study of its origin and manufacture leads at once to those romantic countries bordering[Pg 9] the Mediterranean Sea.

Gathering the Bark

Spain and Portugal divide honors among the nations of the world so far as yield of raw material is concerned, with perhaps the advantage leaning slightly to the latter.

Cork Tree’s Foliage

The cork-producing territory covers practically the whole of Portugal, sweeps toward the east through the southern districts of Spain known as Andalusia and Estremadura, thence northeast, embracing thousands[Pg 10] of acres of forests in Catalonia.

Pile of Bark in the Forest

Algeria, with Tunis, ranks next in importance in yearly tribute of bark, southern France, including Corsica, following closely after. Italy, too, with the help of Sardinia and Sicily, continues to be quite a factor in meeting the demand for the crude material, while across the Strait of Gibraltar the sun-scorched forests of Morocco are as yet undeveloped. The total area covered by cork forests is estimated at from four to five million acres, while the annual production of bark is declared to be not far from fifty thousand tons. Although no official statistics are obtainable, these figures approximate the truth. In Portugal and Spain, particularly in Catalonia, which is probably the greatest cork manufacturing district in the world, a large portion of the corkwood produced[Pg 11] goes to supply domestic factories, where more and more machinery is being introduced every year. With these exceptions, however, the major part of the yield is exported to the United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Denmark, or Sweden, to be turned into finished form.

Weighing Bark in the Forest

The cork oak, known botanically as Quercus suber, attains a height of from twenty to sixty feet and measures sometimes as much as four feet in diameter. Its wide-spreading branches are rather closely covered with small evergreen leaves, thick, glossy, slightly serrated, and downy underneath. In April or May flowers of a yellowish color appear, succeeded by acorns which ripen and fall to the ground in the late fall. Pliny evidently knew whereof he wrote, for the cork oak’s acorns are bitter and not[Pg 12] at all pleasant to the taste.

Virgin Cork and Second Stripping Bark

They form, however, one of the forests’ chief sources of revenue, since, fed to swine, they give a peculiarly piquant flavor to the meat, Spanish mountain hams being noted for their excellence. Unfortunately, the herds in foraging for food destroy the young trees and thus do serious and permanent injury by preventing new growth.

The “corkwood,” or cork of commerce, is the outer bark of the cork oak. When it has attained a diameter of approximately five inches, or, to be more exact, measures forty centimeters in circumference according to the Spanish governmental regulations, which the tree does usually by the time it is twenty years old, the virgin cork, as the first stripping of bark is called, is removed. This[Pg 13] virgin cork is so rough, coarse, and dense in texture that it is of very little commercial value.

Cork Bark, “Back” and “Belly”

Fortunately its removal does not kill the tree, but, on the other hand, seems to promote further development, for the inner bark—the seat of the growing processes—undertakes at once the formation of a new covering of finer texture. Each year this, the real skin, with its life-giving sap, forms two layers of cells—one within, increasing the diameter of the trunk; the other without, adding thickness to the sheathing of bark. After eight or ten years this is also removed, and, while more valuable than the virgin cork, it is not as fine in quality as that of the third and subsequent strippings, which follow at regular intervals of about nine years. At the age of about forty years the oak begins to yield its[Pg 14] best bark, continuing productive as a rule for almost a century, although cork trees several hundred years old are not unknown.

Preparing Bark for Carriage to the Boiling Station

Flourishing as it does in a hot, semi-arid climate, there seems to be no reason why this valuable tree should not be successfully introduced in the southern and southwestern sections of the United States; in fact, in the year 1858 the United States Government took certain steps in this direction, and even went so far as to distribute seedlings to interested persons in several states.

Cork under the Microscope

The[Pg 15] Civil War interfered, however, and the experiments were never fully carried out.

Bark arriving at a Boiling Station

The stripping generally takes place during July and August, and is a process which demands skill and care if injury to the tree is to be avoided. In Algeria, the French strippers sometimes use crescent-shaped saws; but under the usual Spanish method a hatchet with a long handle, wedge-shaped at the end, is the only implement employed.

The Common Carrier

The bark is cut clear through around[Pg 16] the base of the tree and a similar incision is made around the trunk just below the spring of the main branches; the two incisions are then connected by one or two longitudinal cuts, following so far as possible the deepest of the natural cracks in the bark.

A Boiling Station

Inserting the wedge-shaped handle, the tree’s covering is then pried off, care being taken not to injure the inner skin at any stage of the process, for the life of the tree depends on its proper preservation; and if it is injured at any point, growth there ceases and the spot remains forever afterward scarred and uncovered.

A Wagon Load of Bark

The larger branches are stripped in the same manner, yielding thinner but[Pg 17] generally a finer grade of cork than that from the trunk.

Factory at Seville, covering Twenty Acres

The thickness of the bark is anywhere from one-half to two and a half inches, while the yield also varies greatly—from forty-five to five hundred pounds—depending on the size and age of the tree.

As the bark is removed it is gathered up in piles and left for a few days to dry. Having been weighed, it is next carried either in wagons or on the backs of burros to the boiling stations, where it is stacked and allowed to season for a[Pg 18] few weeks. It is then ready for the boiling process, which at times is postponed until the crude material reaches Seville or some other shipping point.

Trimming the Sheets of Bark at Seville

But if the forest is distant, the water supply adequate, and the quantity of bark ample to justify such procedure, the vats are erected at a convenient spot and this operation carried out on the ground.

The outside of the bark in its natural[Pg 19] state is, as may well be imagined, rough and woody, owing to exposure to the weather. After boiling, this useless outer coating is readily scraped off, thereby reducing the weight of the material almost twenty per cent. The boiling process also serves to remove the tannic acid, increases the volume and elasticity of the bark, renders it soft and pliable, and flattens it out for convenient packing.

Corner of One of the Sorting Rooms at Seville

After being roughly sorted as to quality and thickness the bark is then ready for its first long journey, and, as the forests are generally located in hilly or even mountainous country, the faithful burro must again be called into service. Truly the Spaniard’s best friend, though the worst treated of all, these patient little animals present a most grotesque appearance when loaded from head to[Pg 20] hind quarters with a huge mass of the light bark.

Baling Corkwood at Seville

Down from the hills they go in trains of thirty, forty, or even a hundred, threading the rocky bridle paths in single file and wending their way through the narrow streets of quaint villages, where traces of Moorish occupancy may still be seen, to the nearest railway station, or even to Seville itself.

Of course, if conditions permit, wagons are used, but since Spain is not a country famous for its good roads, it is probable that for many years to come the burro will play his part in supplying the cork markets of the world.[Pg 21]

One of the Corkwood Warehouses, Seville Plant

Although large supplies of raw material are drawn from Portugal, the principal foreign warehouse and Spanish factory of the Armstrong Cork Company are situated in Seville; hence it is to that historic city on the banks of the Guadalquivir that the bark from many hills and valleys finds its way during the summer months.

The Giralda, Seville

There the bales as they come from the country are opened, the bark boiled and scraped, if this has not already been done, and then, after the edges have been trimmed, is sorted into a dozen or more grades of different quality and thickness. The importance of this last mentioned operation cannot be overemphasized, as the[Pg 22] whole problem of the successful and economical manufacture of cork centers about it.

The Wharf at Seville. Loading Bales of Corkwood for America

The expert Spanish sorters having finished their work, the bark is ready to be rebaled for shipment to America.

Bale of Corkwood

Broad sheets are placed in a baling box to form the bottom of the bale, and above them are laid smaller pieces, which are covered in turn with larger sections; then the whole mass is subjected to pressure to render it compact, afterward being bound up securely with steel hoops or wire.[Pg 23]

Spaniards cutting Bark into Strips and Squares

Each bale is carefully stenciled with marks indicating grade or quality. Loaded directly into ocean-going steamers alongside the Seville docks, not infrequently a whole ship’s cargo of cork at a time is transported to Philadelphia, New York, or Baltimore, and thence freighted to the Pittsburgh factory.

Cutting Corks by Hand

From the mountain of cork unloaded at its doors a host of different articles are produced by means of wonderfully ingenious machinery coupled with hundreds of keen brains, for the human element must always play a large part in cork[Pg 24] manufacture.

The Factory at Pittsburgh

Among them corks rank first in importance; hence the greater part of the floor space of this factory, the largest of its kind in the world, is given over to their production.

Slicing into Strips

For whatever purpose it is to be used, all bark removed from the immense storage rooms is taken first to the sorting department, where, under skilled eyes, the twenty-five or more foreign grades are resorted into approximately one[Pg 25] hundred and fifty different classes, according to quality and thickness.

Bales of Cork being unloaded at Pittsburgh

The speed and skill with which this work is done is astounding. So slight is the difference between some of the grades that to the inexperienced eye none can be seen whatever, and yet success hinges on the care and skill exercised in this and the other sortings that follow.

Corks punched from Strips

In manufacturing corks it must be understood in the first place that the thickness of a given piece of bark[Pg 26] determines the maximum diameter of the stopper which can be made from it, as the cutting is done across and not with the grain.

One of the Fourteen Storage Rooms, Pittsburgh Factory

Leaving the sorting room the corkwood is softened by placing it in a warm vapor bath. This process increases its flexibility greatly, its bulk slightly, and prepares it to undergo the various mechanical operations which follow in rapid succession.

Cork Punchings

The keen edge of the slicer first confronts the sheets of bark, and it is at this point that the first mechanical obstacle in cork manufacture has to be overcome,[Pg 27] for the soft, light, elastic material is, withal, very difficult to cut, as may be determined by simple personal experiment.

One of the Corkwood Sorting Rooms at Pittsburgh

But before the onslaught of a circular steel knife, revolving hundreds of revolutions every minute and kept at razor-like sharpness, even this difficulty disappears, and the sheets are readily cut into strips whose width is determined by the length of the cork desired.

Cutting into Squares

From the slicer the strips pass to the blocking machines, where, by means of a rapidly rotating tubular punch, cylindrical pieces are bored out and released with[Pg 28] almost incredible speed.

Blocking Department at Pittsburgh

The operative, of course, must use care to avoid defective spots in the bark, and also to cut the corks out as closely together as possible so as to reduce waste to a minimum. The stoppers which come from these machines are round with parallel sides. If tapered corks are desired, larger at the upper end than at the lower, the cylindrical or “straight” pieces must be passed through another machine, which handles them deftly, holding them against the edge of another circular knife.

Cork Insoles

Seemingly motionless, the only outward indication of the speed with[Pg 29] which the keen blade is revolving is the delicate shaving which curls upward for an instant, only to be drawn away through pipes by powerful air-suction to the mill building a hundred yards distant, where all such waste is ground up, to be disposed of in the form of various by-products.

Making Tapered Corks at Pittsburgh

Both “straights” and “tapers” next journey to the washing rooms. There dumped in great vats, thousands at a time, they are carefully washed and then dried by being whirled about dizzily in great revolving cylinders of wire net located in heated chambers.

Washers and Gaskets

[Pg 30]

A Glimpse of Another Department, Pittsburgh Factory

Not all of the bark, however, that is destined to be turned into corks follows the course that has just been described; for certain varieties a different process of manufacture, approximating in many respects the original Spanish method, is found more practicable.

Cork Balls

The crude bark, after being sorted, is cut into strips on the slicing machines, the width as before depending on the length of the stopper to be made. To remove the rest of the hard back, or outer crust, much of which still remains despite the scraping before shipment to America, the[Pg 31] pieces are then passed beneath a revolving knife which shaves off the rough, uneven portion.

Sorting Tapered Corks at Pittsburgh Factory

Free now from objectionable matter, the strips are cut into small rectangular blocks of the dimensions of the cork desired. In this process, just as in blocking, care must be taken to avoid defects in the bark, and at the same time to prevent waste. Passing to another department the rectangular pieces are rounded into proper shape.

Cork Polishing Wheels

In Spain, before the days of large cork factories employing labor saving machinery, and even to a great extent at the[Pg 32] present time, all of these operations are carried out by hand.

Packing Department at Pittsburgh

Whole families participate, slicing the bark into strips, then into squares, and finally cutting the corks from the square blocks slowly and laboriously. This hand method of manufacture is gradually disappearing as more and more machinery comes into general use.

Cork Paper

What are known as hand cut corks are stoppers which are not exactly round, but of a shape which might be appropriately described as a “square circle.” In the judgment of some, they are better suited for certain purposes than straights or tapers.

[Pg 33]

Putting Final Touches on Life-Preservers

From the driers all corks are taken to the sorting rooms, where they are subjected to the last of the actual manufacturing processes, and, from many standpoints, the most interesting of all. Here, again, the importance of proper grading is paramount, and when one considers that almost five million corks pour into this department every working day, the magnitude of the task can be partly grasped.

Seine and Gill Corks

When the further fact is known that this enormous output is to be sorted into about twenty regular besides numerous special grades, one can still further appreciate what the problem involves. The[Pg 34] work itself calls for such a peculiar combination of faculties that only one out of every five operatives who are given preliminary training in this department is found satisfactory; but so highly skilled do the regular workers become that the sorting of thirty-five thousand corks may be considered an average day’s labor.

Circle A Corks

Experts exercise careful supervision and actually test each lot of corks as they come from the operatives in order that uniform standards may be maintained from day to day and month to month.

When past the keen eye of the tester, the cork, after its long journey through the factory, passes either direct to the packing department or to the warehouses. This last point involves a problem which is often very puzzling and difficult of solution. Thousands of dollars’ worth of corks are placed in the warehouses every year to[Pg 35] remain there indefinitely.

Circle B Corks

An order for a quantity of corks of a certain size and quality also involves, of necessity, the manufacture of a great many corks of other grades. The reason for this is, of course, found in the fact that the raw material, no matter how carefully sorted at the outset, will not produce a finished product of uniform quality. Thus frequently it becomes necessary to work over a given lot of corks for which there is no demand into a smaller size for which orders are pouring in.

Into the packing department streams a bewildering array of corks of every conceivable shape, grade, and size. The tapers appear in a dozen qualities, at the head of which stand the peerless “Circle A” and “Circle B,” prescription corks found in every first-class pharmacy in the land. The straights have been separated into various[Pg 36] classes, running from the fine champagne corks down to the common soda water corks.

Tapered Corks, X Grade

Besides, there are keg corks, hand cut corks, mustard and jar corks of large diameter, shell corks, perforated through the center, and glued corks made up of several layers, all of which must be put up in packages of suitable size, ready to be delivered to the shipping department for transportation to the consumer.

Bobbers for Fishing Lines

A host of other useful articles also find their way from the many manufacturing departments to the shipping rooms. Of insoles thousands of pairs are produced[Pg 37] annually.

Large Tapered Corks

Discs and washers by the million are punched out for use in metal caps for bottles and jars, and as gaskets in lubricator cups. Life-preservers, ring buoys, yacht fenders, mooring and anchoring buoys are the specialties of one department, while another pays particular attention to the manufacture of seine and gill corks, and bobbers for fishing lines.

Instrument and Fishing Rod Handles

So varied, in fact, are the forms which cork assumes that the complete[Pg 38] cataloguing of the functions which it fills in the world to-day would be well-nigh impossible.

Straight Wine Corks

For instance, cork shapes may be found in animal heads on rugs and fur garments, and, covered with suitable material, are used as buttons on fur coats. Cork balls play their part in exhibiting cutlery and in various games; the automobilist finds cork carburetor floats indispensable; churn lids are made tight with cork gaskets; pen holders have cork tips; hats are lined with thin sheets of cork; friction clutches of cork are steadily growing in favor; the optician employs small cork strips in connection with eyeglasses; the plasterer uses cork floats; while the glass manufacturer knows no better medium for polishing his wares than cork wheels. The finest pieces of bark are made into cork paper, so thin that five hundred sheets measure but one inch in thickness. Sorted into[Pg 39] several different grades, this beautiful, velvety material is practically all used in making cigarette tips.

Straight Soda Corks, D Grade

Fishing rod, whip, bicycle, trowel, and pyrographic instrument handles of cork are, of course, familiar to every one.

Granulated Cork

But the manufacture of corks and of all these other articles involves waste, and waste to an extent little dreamed of. In producing corks, for instance, fully sixty-five per cent of the raw material which started out on its journey through the factory may be found later in the form of scrap at the blocking and tapering machines; but even in this mutilated state the bark is still valuable, and after proper treatment in the[Pg 40] Pittsburgh plant, or one of the other factories of the Company, appears in the form of numerous by-products of great value and importance.

Keg Corks

As a matter of fact, nothing is wasted; even the smallest particles are utilized. Large quantities of scrap are ground up, sifted, and made into composition cork with the aid of suitable binders.

Plasterer’s Float

From “Suberit,” as the finest variety of this material is termed—light, close grained, and tough, without the large pores of the natural cork—table mats to be placed under hot dishes, pin cushions, fishing line floats, polishing wheels, and instrument handles are[Pg 41] manufactured; while from “Acme,” a somewhat coarser grade, are made insoles, bath mats, washers, gaskets, and entomological cork—thin sheets for mounting insects.

Hand Cut Corks, A Grade

Part of the waste is reduced to the form of cork shavings and used to stuff mattresses and boat cushions, for packing eggs and other fragile articles, and in making cork floor tiling.

Cork Carburetor Floats

This material is manufactured in three shades of brown, and its warmth of tone and delicately mottled and veined appearance give it a distinctive charm peculiarly its own. Smooth and soft as velvet to the touch, cork tiling is nevertheless firm and[Pg 42] resilient and able to stand years of hard service.

Hand Cut Corks, C Grade

Thousands of square feet have been installed in hotels, libraries, museums, clubs, and private residences.

Cork flour is another by-product, and is manufactured from the waste bark by much the same method as that employed in grinding wheat. This beautiful light brown dust is one of the chief constituents of high grade linoleum. In the Company’s plant at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, thousands of yards of this material are produced every day.

Mooring and Anchoring Buoys

The many different grades of granulated[Pg 43] cork, made by grinding up cork waste, find a wide sphere of usefulness for packing and heat insulating purposes. In this last mentioned field, in fact, cork now ranks preeminent. Its peculiar structure, which may be seen under the microscope—myriads of sealed air cells, impervious to air and water—renders it not only a splendid nonconductor of heat, but also nonabsorbent of moisture.

Jar, Mustard, and Shell Corks
Ring Buoy

For loose filling between the walls of ice boxes, water coolers, and cold storage rooms, and about the sides of freezing tanks in ice factories, hundreds of tons of[Pg 44] granulated cork are employed every year. Comparatively recently, however, an insulating material possessing permanency of form has been found desirable for many reasons.

Life-Preserver

To meet this demand granulated cork is transformed into corkboard at the Company’s plants at Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, and Camden, New Jersey. Using the pure cork, either with or without an asphaltic binder, three grades of this material are made, known as Nonpareil, Impregnated, and Acme Corkboard, respectively. The sheets measure twelve by thirty-six inches, of various thicknesses, and, as they possess ample structural strength, may be nailed into place in buildings or rooms of frame construction, or put up with Portland cement against brick, stone, or concrete walls and ceilings. A plaster finish is readily applied. Owing to its freedom from progressive[Pg 45] deterioration, its constant efficiency, its slow burning and fire retarding properties, and its sanitary qualities, corkboard insulation is now recognized as the standard throughout the land, and may be found installed almost everywhere refrigeration is employed.

Cork Floor Tiling

Hundreds of cold storage warehouses, abattoirs, fur storage vaults, breweries, ice plants, dairies, creameries, candy factories, and bakeries are insulated with it, not to mention refrigerated rooms in hotels, clubs, private residences, and aboard the ships of the United States, British, and Italian navies.

Another by-product, and the last one of importance, is cork pipe covering for insulating cold pipe lines. Made of pure granulated cork, slightly compressed and molded in sectional form to fit the many different sizes of pipe and kinds of fittings, it is a thoroughly durable covering[Pg 46] for brine and ammonia piping in refrigerating plants, and for ice water lines in office buildings, hotels, and industrial establishments.

Nonpareil Corkboard

In this rôle the cork bark, after its devious career in American factories, performs a service similar to that of its early days in Spain, when, sheathing trunk and branches, it prevented the sun’s rays and the parching winds from heating and drying up the cool, life-giving sap of its parent tree.

Cork Pipe Covering

Rogers & Company
Chicago and New York

## Transcriber’s note

Minor punctuation errors have been changed without notice. All other inconsistencies are as in the original.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORK: BEING THE STORY OF THE ORIGIN OF CORK, THE PROCESSES EMPLOYED IN ITS MANUFACTURE & ITS VARIOUS USES IN THE WORLD TO-DAY ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE

## THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

> This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

- • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
- • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
- • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
- • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.